Al-Akhdam - Yemen
The Al-Akhdam (also known as the Muhamasheen, meaning "the marginalized ones") are a socially segregated community in Yemen that faces systematic discrimination akin to an untouchable caste. They are considered to be at the very bottom of Yemen's social hierarchy and endure severe marginalization in housing, employment, education, and access to humanitarian aid.
🏛️ Identity and Origins
The Al-Akhdam are an Arabic-speaking, predominantly Muslim ethnic group. However, they are physically distinguished by darker skin and, in some descriptions, Veddoid-like features. While the exact origins are disputed, a popular myth claims they are descendants of Abyssinian soldiers who occupied Yemen in the 6th century. This belief, whether true or not, is used to portray them as outsiders with no noble lineage in a society where social status is tied to ancestry and tribal connections.
This lack of clear origin and exclusion from the tribal structure has resulted in centuries of descent-based discrimination. A traditional Yemeni proverb starkly illustrates this contempt: "Clean your plate if it is touched by a dog, but break it if it's touched by a Khadem".
💔 Social and Economic Marginalization
Discrimination against the Al-Akhdam is deep and pervasive, impacting every aspect of their lives.
Living Conditions: They are forced to live in isolated, informal slums or shantytowns on the outskirts of cities, often with homes made of cardboard, rags, or scrap wood. These settlements typically lack electricity, running water, and sewage systems.
Employment: They are almost entirely confined to the lowest-paid and most stigmatized "menial" jobs. In the public sector, if employed, they are often limited to work as street cleaners without contracts or benefits. In the private sector, they work as shoe-shiners, car washers, or garbage collectors.
Education: Literacy rates are extremely low (around 20% among adults). Only 9% of children are registered at birth, which creates a major barrier to school enrollment. Children who do attend school face harassment and bullying from teachers and other students, leading to high dropout rates.
Social Segregation: Social mixing and intermarriage between the Al-Akhdam and other Yemenis are strictly taboo. A man who marries an Al-Akhdam woman risks being banished by his family. They are considered "untouchable" and are widely stereotyped as dirty, immoral, and lowly.
⚔️ Devastating Impact of the Civil War
The ongoing civil war, which escalated in 2015, has disproportionately devastated the Al-Akhdam.
Aid Discrimination: Despite being one of the most vulnerable populations, they are often systematically excluded from humanitarian aid. A 2021 report cited in The New Arab highlighted a stark example: in one displacement camp, tribal families received financial support for housing, while 903 Al-Akhdam families received nothing.
Displacement and Eviction: Without tribal connections to fall back on, displaced Al-Akhdam struggle to find safe shelter. They are often barred from official displacement camps by other residents and have been repeatedly evicted from land where they sought refuge.
Exploitation: All warring parties have reportedly exploited the community's desperate poverty, luring young men to fight on the frontlines with the promise of a paycheck.
📜 A Struggle for Recognition
While no Yemeni law explicitly discriminates against the Al-Akhdam, the state has done little to protect them, and in some cases, local authorities actively enforce segregation.
Forced Evictions: A recent report from January 2026 described how, in early 2025, 20 Al-Akhdam homes in Aden were demolished by the local Public Works office. Residents, who had lived there for 30 years, were given just 24 hours to leave.
Activism: Despite this, the community is mobilizing. In the 1990s, the Muhamasheen began to become more vocal in asserting their rights. There is a growing number of local initiatives and calls for the government to allocate land and ensure equal treatment, though the path to full citizenhood remains a distant prospect.
Education Very low literacy (~20%) and school enrollment due to lack of birth certificates and bullying.
Impact of War Excluded from humanitarian aid, repeatedly evicted, and targeted for recruitment by militias.
Baekjeong were an "untouchable"
The Baekjeong were an "untouchable" outcaste group in Korea, historically known as butchers, executioners, and performers of other "polluting" trades. While the legal caste system was abolished in 1894, social discrimination persisted for decades. Today, the term primarily refers to butchers and is used neutrally, including in the names of popular Korean BBQ restaurants .
Here is a comparison of the historical and modern status of the Baekjeong:
AspectHistorical Status (Pre-1894)Modern Status (Post-Liberation)Social Standing Considered "untouchable" (cheonmin, 천민), the lowest class, seen as contemptible and polluted . Stigma has significantly decreased; the term is now used descriptively for butchers and BBQ restaurants without negative connotation .
Official Classification Legal caste system under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. In Goryeo, 'baekjeong' originally meant 'common people' . No legal classification. Full citizens of South Korea.
Occupation Bound to despised professions: butchery, tanning, basket weaving, and executions . Freely chosen professions. The term "baekjeong" is commonly used to refer to butchers and in the names of Korean BBQ restaurants (e.g., Kang Ho-dong Baekjeong) .
Legal Rights Severe discrimination: could not wear silk, live in tiled houses, use certain names, or be buried in common graveyards . Full legal rights as citizens.
📜 Historical Background
The Baekjeong's origins are disputed. One theory suggests they were descended from nomadic peoples like the Jurchen or Khitans who settled in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) and were not easily assimilated into the mainstream population . In the Goryeo period, the term 'baekjeong' originally meant 'common people' . However, during the subsequent Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), they were consolidated into a distinct outcaste group and became associated with society's most despised jobs .
In 1894, the Gabo Reform legally abolished the caste system. Reformers demanded an end to discriminatory practices, such as forcing Baekjeong to wear degrading hats . Furthermore, a mutual aid organization, Seungdongdoga (승동도가), was formed near the end of the Joseon Dynasty to represent the Baekjeong community and push for improvements .
✊ Social Movements & Liberation
In addition to the Gabo Reform, two religious movements played a crucial role in advocating for the Baekjeong's rights and dignity:
Donghak (Eastern Learning): This Korean nationalist religion was a major supporter of human rights. The Donghak Peasant Revolution of 1894 explicitly demanded an end to the unfair conventions imposed on the Baekjeong, such as discriminatory hats .
Christianity: Christian missionaries and converts introduced concepts of social equality and egalitarianism to Korea. These beliefs directly challenged the rigid Confucian caste hierarchy that oppressed the Baekjeong and helped inspire social movements for their liberation .
Despite these reforms and movements, deep-seated social prejudice persisted for generations. Even after being legally reclassified as commoners, the Baekjeong continued to face discrimination. Official family registers were kept separate, and their occupations were marked with a red dot or the word "butcher" . A study on the Korean Empire period (1897-1910) notes that they were often forced to work as illegal butchers due to a lack of opportunities and were heavily exploited by local officials and the yangban (aristocratic class) .
📌 Modern Usage
Today, the word "baekjeong" has lost much of its historical sting . While a subtle social stigma may still be attached to occupations that handle raw meat, the term is now used in a purely descriptive manner . Korean BBQ restaurants, where raw meat is cooked at the table, widely use "baekjeong" in their names as a point of description, not derision .
Balinese caste system
The Balinese caste system (locally known as Catur Wangsa or Catur Warna, meaning "four lineages" or "four colors") is a traditional social classification among the Hindu population of Bali, Indonesia. It draws from ancient Hindu concepts (similar to India's varna system) but has evolved distinctly due to local history, culture, and Balinese Hinduism (Agama Hindu Dharma).
The Four Main Castes (Wangsa)
Balinese society is traditionally divided into four broad groups, ranked from highest to lowest in ritual and social status:
- Brahmana (Brahmin) — Highest caste
- Traditionally priests, scholars, and spiritual leaders.
- They officiate major religious rituals (pedanda high priests come from this group).
- Common name prefixes: Men — Ida Bagus; Women — Ida Ayu (or Dayu).
- Symbolized by the color white.
- Ksatria (Kshatriya or Satria) — Warrior/noble caste
- Historically associated with rulers, kings, warriors, nobles, and administrators. Many royal families (e.g., from the old Gelgel and Klungkung kingdoms) belong here.
- Common titles: Anak Agung, Tjokorda (Cokorda), Dewa Agung, etc.
- Symbolized by the color red.
- Wesya (Waisya or Wesia) — Merchant/trader caste
- Linked to commerce, trade, artisans, and some administrative roles.
- Common name prefixes: I Gusti, Ngurah, Dewa, Sang, or Gusti Agung.
- Symbolized by the color yellow.
- Sudra (Shudra) — Commoner or peasant caste
- The largest group, comprising over 90–93% of the Balinese Hindu population.
- Traditionally farmers, laborers, artisans, and village workers.
- No aristocratic titles. Children are usually named by birth order:
- 1st: Wayan or Putu
- 2nd: Made or Kadek
- 3rd: Nyoman or Komang
- 4th: Ketut
- Symbolized by the color black.
The first three castes (Brahmana + Ksatria + Wesya) are collectively called Triwangsa (the "three peoples" or nobility/aristocrats). Sudra are sometimes referred to as Jaba ("outsiders" to the nobility).
Key Differences from the Indian Caste System
- No Untouchables: Bali has no concept of Dalits or untouchables. Sudra are fully integrated into religious and village life.
- Less Rigid: Caste in Bali is more about ritual status, naming, language use (higher castes traditionally use more respectful Balinese), and certain ceremonies. It never had the extreme occupational restrictions or pollution concepts seen in parts of India.
- Fewer Sub-castes: Bali has a simpler structure with far fewer jati-like sub-divisions.
- Social Mobility: Historically possible through merit, royal service, wealth, or religious achievement. In modern times, education, tourism, business, and government jobs have further blurred lines.
- Village-Based Life: Daily social organization often revolves more around the banjar (village council) and subak (irrigation cooperative) than strict caste rules.
How It Affects Life in Bali
- Names & Language: Caste is often visible in a person's full name and influences polite speech forms.
- Marriage: Inter-caste marriage is possible but traditionally sensitive (especially a higher-caste woman marrying a lower-caste man, as the woman's status may "fall"). Many modern families are more flexible.
- Religion & Rituals: Higher castes (especially Brahmana) have special roles in temple ceremonies, but everyone participates in village temples.
- No Discrimination by Law: Indonesia's constitution and government prohibit caste-based discrimination. Bali's tourism-driven economy and modernization have reduced its daily importance.
Current Status (as of 2026)
The caste system still exists as part of cultural identity, especially in rural areas, family traditions, naming, and certain religious contexts. However, it has become much less influential in everyday life, education, business, politics, and urban settings due to:
- Tourism and globalization
- Modern education
- Economic changes (wealthy Sudra families are common)
- Younger generations prioritizing merit over birth
Many Balinese view it as a historical and ritual framework rather than a strict hierarchy. Prejudice or restrictions (e.g., in marriage) still occur in conservative families, but they are declining.
In summary, Bali's caste system is a milder, localized adaptation of Hindu varna ideas — more symbolic and ceremonial than oppressive. It shapes identity and some traditions but does not dominate modern Balinese life the way it once did.
Burakumin in Japan
Burakumin – a centuries-old social minority group that has faced severe discrimination. They are not an ethnic minority but rather a caste- or descent-based group, indistinguishable from other Japanese in terms of ethnicity, language, religion, or physical appearance .
Their situation is often described as Japan's "invisible race" or "untouchable caste" because discrimination is based purely on ancestry and historical association with occupations considered ritually impure .
🏛️ Historical Origins: The Eta and Hinin
The roots of the Burakumin lie in Japan's feudal era, particularly during the Edo period (1603-1867) , when a rigid four-tiered class system (samurai, peasants, artisans, merchants) was established .
Below this hierarchy existed the outcastes, known as eta (穢多) , meaning "abundance of filth," and hinin (非人) , meaning "non-human" .
Outcaste GroupMeaning of TermTypical Occupations / StatusEta "Abundance of filth" / "Much defilement" Butchers, executioners, undertakers, leather tanners, grave diggers .
The occupations of the eta were stigmatized due to Buddhist and Shinto beliefs concerning kegare (穢れ) , or ritual defilement, associated with death, blood, and the handling of animal carcasses . This pollution was considered "transferable by bloodline," condemning not just the individual workers but their descendants and entire communities to a permanent hereditary status .
📜 The End of the Feudal Caste System and Its Legacy
The Meiji Restoration formally abolished the caste system in 1871 with the Emancipation Edict (Kaihōrei) . However, the Edict was a legal act that did not change social attitudes. In fact, by eliminating their monopolies on certain trades, it often worsened their economic situation .
Historical discrimination was severe, with burakumin forced to live in segregated hamlets (buraku), adhere to dress codes, and were often prohibited from entering temples or schools . This created isolated communities that persisted for generations.
🏙️ The Burakumin Today: Persistent Prejudice
While living conditions and legal rights have improved significantly, discrimination remains a reality in modern Japan, often encountered at life's critical turning points .
Population Estimates: Exact numbers are contested, as the government no longer conducts official counts. Estimates range from 1 to 3 million people, living in thousands of former buraku hamlets now absorbed into cities, primarily in western Japan .
Mechanisms of Discrimination: Because Burakumin are ethnically identical, discrimination operates through ancestry and geography. Historically, employers and potential in-laws would hire private detectives to investigate family backgrounds using Japan's family registration system (koseki) , which can trace lineage back for generations .
Modern-Day Manifestations:
Marriage: Marriage discrimination is a central issue. "Background checks" for potential spouses are still common, and families may break off engagements upon discovering Burakumin ancestry .
Employment: Job applicants may be screened out based on their address or family history, especially in small-to-medium sized companies that rely on personal connections .
Housing and Real Estate: Lists of buraku neighborhoods have circulated online, impacting property values. A 2009 incident saw Google Earth face a major backlash for publishing old maps that labeled former eta villages, as critics argued this could easily be used as a tool for discrimination .
Social Prejudice: A 1993 government survey found that 9.9% of the population still believed Burakumin are a different "race" . This manifests in derogatory jokes, hate graffiti, and "racist slurs" such as the continued use of the term eta .
Activism and Change: The Buraku Liberation League (BLL) is Japan's largest Burakumin rights organization. They have successfully lobbied for government "assimilation projects" (Dōwa projects) from 1969 to 2002, which improved infrastructure, housing, and education in buraku areas . However, activists argue that these projects did not solve the core problem of social prejudice .
In summary, the Burakumin are Japan's historical "untouchable" caste. While officially abolished over 150 years ago, their descendants continue to face a unique and deeply entrenched form of descent-based discrimination.
Cagot (France)
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Based on historical records, the Cagots were a persecuted minority group in Western France and Northern Spain for over 1,000 years, but they no longer exist as a distinct social class today. Their status has transformed from "untouchables" to fully integrated citizens of France and Spain.
Here is a summary of their historical and modern status:
AspectHistorical Status (c. 1000–1900)Current StatusSocial Standing Considered "untouchable" pariahs, "sickening to the touch" . Fully integrated citizens. The term "Cagot" is now an outdated insult .
Living Conditions Forced to live in isolated hamlets called cagoteries on village outskirts . Live as any other citizen. The physical cagoteries are now touristic sites .
Legal Rights Subject to severe legal discrimination, including forced endogamy . Full legal rights. Discrimination legally ended during the French Revolution (1789) .
Occupations Restricted to "unclean" trades like carpentry, butchery, and rope-making . Free to pursue any profession.
Religious Access Restricted to side doors in churches and separate holy water stoups . No religious restrictions.
📜 Who Were the Cagots?
The Cagots represent one of the most enigmatic and long-lasting cases of social exclusion in European history. Evidence of their existence dates back to the year 1000 CE . Their origins remain a complete mystery. Over the centuries, theories have wildly suggested they were descendants of Visigoths, Saracens, Cathars, Jews, lepers, or even carpenters who built the cross of Jesus Christ, but modern historians agree that none of these have been proven .
Their most unique characteristic is that they were physically and culturally indistinguishable from the majority population; they spoke the same language, had the same names, and practiced the same religion .
🚫 A Millennium of Segregation
From the 13th to the 19th century, the Cagots were subjected to a brutal and systematic form of discrimination that is often compared to the caste system in India . Their mistreatment was codified into local laws . They were forced to live in specific ghettos (cagoteries) with their own wells and cemeteries .
In churches, their segregation was most visible. They were forced to enter through a low, separate side door and were kept apart from other worshippers by a rail . They had their own holy water font and could only receive communion on the end of a long wooden spoon .
They were also forced to wear a distinctive badge, often a red goose's foot (pédauke) sewn onto their clothes . Social contact was strictly forbidden; they could not touch food in markets, use public fountains, or walk barefoot on common roads .
🗺️ Regional Presence and Timeline
The Cagots were primarily found in a region straddling the Pyrenees mountains, from the south of the Garonne River in France to the north of the Ebro River in Spain . Specific areas included Béarn, Gascony, the Basque Country (where they were called Agotak), and Brittany (where they were called Caqueux) .
Their persecution began to be legally challenged in 1683, when the French royal power banned the use of the word "Cagot" as it was deemed discriminatory . The decisive turning point was the French Revolution of 1789. The revolution's principles of "liberty, equality, and fraternity" and the abolition of feudal privileges led to the official end of all legal discrimination against them .
📌 Modern Status
Today, the Cagots no longer form a separate social class and have been completely assimilated into the general population . Their culture has largely disappeared, and most descendants have chosen not to be known as such due to the long history of shame and persecution . While the prejudice lasted into the early 20th century in some remote areas like the Navarre region of Spain , the term "Cagot" now largely survives only as an old insult , a subject of historical study, and as part of local heritage tourism where the old "cagoteries" can still be seen .
Caste systems in Africa
Caste systems in Africa refer to forms of social stratification based on hereditary, endogamous (marriage within the group) groups tied to specific occupations, often with concepts of ritual pollution or impurity that limit social interactions like shared meals (commensality). These are found in numerous ethnic groups across more than 15 countries, especially in the Sahel and West Africa, but also in parts of East and North Africa. They differ from the Indian caste system in origins, religious basis (often not tied to Hinduism), and structure—African versions are typically less pan-societal and more focused on artisan/musician groups alongside noble, freeborn, and slave-descended strata.
Key Features of African Caste Systems
- Hereditary and Endogamous: Membership is by birth; marriage outside the caste is traditionally taboo or rare.
- Occupational Specialization: Lower or "casted" groups often handle crafts like blacksmithing, leatherworking, pottery, weaving, or roles as bards/griots (praise-singers and historians).
- Hierarchy with Ambivalence: "Casted" people may be respected for their skills (e.g., blacksmiths linked to spiritual power or fire) but stigmatized as "impure" due to myths of ancestral transgressions or polluting work.
- Social Restrictions: Limits on land ownership, political roles, burial practices, and participation in initiation societies or cultural events. Some systems include embedded slavery or slave descendants.
- Scale: These are usually pockets within ethnic groups (e.g., 10-30% of the population in affected societies), not a rigid all-encompassing system like varna in classical India. Estimates suggest they affect tens of millions, particularly in West Africa.
Caste-like discrimination persists in modern times despite legal abolitions in some countries, affecting employment, marriage, education, and political representation. Urbanization, Islam/Christianity, and modernization have weakened but not eliminated them—endogamy and subtle stigma often continue.
West Africa (Most Prominent Region)
Caste systems are well-documented among Mande-speaking peoples (Mali, Senegal, Guinea, etc.) and others like Wolof, Soninke, Fulani, Songhay, and Tuareg. They likely developed between the 9th-15th centuries, possibly linked to empire-building, slavery, and craft specialization.
Common structure (varies by group):
- Nobles/Freeborn (e.g., horon or garmi among Wolof/Mande): Highest status, warriors, rulers, or farmers.
- Occupational Castes (nyamakala or niégno): Artisans and specialists.
- Blacksmiths (numu): Metalworkers, often revered yet feared for mastery of fire/sorcery; endogamous and sometimes linguistically distinct.
- Griots/Jeli (bards/musicians): Oral historians, praise-singers; ambivalent status—powerful through words but socially separate.
- Leatherworkers, potters, weavers, etc.
- Slave Descendants (diaam or similar): Lowest, with ongoing marginalization.
Examples:
- Wolof (Senegal): Nobles, peasants (geer), occupational castes, and slave descendants. Stigma includes beliefs that contact with certain castes causes physical issues (e.g., pimples).
- Tuareg (Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso): Includes artisan castes (blacksmiths) and Bellah (slave caste) facing servitude-like conditions.
- Discrimination: Housing segregation, refusal of intermarriage, exclusion from leadership. Surveys show persistent effects on social tolerance and support for government intervention.
These systems affect an estimated 90 million people across at least 15 ethnic groups in the region.
East and Horn of Africa
- Somalia: "Sab" (low-caste) groups (blacksmiths, leatherworkers, hunters) face pollution myths, denial of land/cattle ownership, no diya (blood money) rights, and enforced endogamy. Patron-client relationships with dominant clans persist, even in diaspora.
- Ethiopia: Among Amhara and southern groups, occupational castes (tanners, potters, weavers) and slave-like strata exist with similar pollution concepts and restrictions. Marginalized groups like Manja face daily exclusion.
- Other: Limited reports in parts of Kenya or among certain groups.
Other Regions
- Madagascar: Highly stratified among Merina people, with slave castes (andevo) facing severe ongoing discrimination and exploitation despite historical abolition. UN reports highlight this as descent-based marginalization.
- Nigeria: The Osu system among Igbo involves ritual dedication leading to segregation, endogamy taboos, and violence against integration attempts.
- Mauritania and Sahel: Haratin (former slave descendants) and artisan castes endure economic and social exclusion; slavery-like practices persist in isolated areas.
Indian Diaspora and Caste in Africa
In countries with significant Indian communities (e.g., South Africa, East Africa like Kenya/Tanzania/Uganda, Mauritius), elements of the South Asian caste system were imported via indentured labor and trade migration (19th-20th centuries). Upper-caste Indians sometimes reproduced hierarchies, viewing local Africans through a caste-like lens (e.g., derogatory terms or social distance in homes). However, colonial racial categories and anti-apartheid struggles often blurred or compromised strict caste practices. Many South African Indians today report that traditional caste (Brahmin/Kshatriya etc.) is weak or irrelevant in daily life and marriage, though endogamy within broader cultural/linguistic groups persists in some families. Dalit-like consciousness or discrimination within the diaspora is less documented but exists in pockets.
Comparison to Indian SC/ST Contexts
African systems share traits with South Asian ones (endogamy, heredity, pollution, occupational links, discrimination against "low" groups) but lack a unified religious sanction like varna/jati or legal recognition akin to India's SC/ST reservations. African "casted" groups are often skilled artisans rather than purely landless laborers, and mobility has increased more through Islam, Christianity, education, and urbanization. Stigma attaches to descent-based groups (including slave descendants), leading to similar issues of social exclusion as faced by disadvantaged communities elsewhere. International bodies like the UN and Dalit Solidarity Network note parallels in descent-based discrimination.
These practices are declining in urban, educated, or migrant contexts but remain resilient in rural or traditional settings, reinforced by family names, myths, and social pressure. Many affected individuals advocate for greater awareness and integration.
Casteism in Canada
While Canada does not have a historical or legal caste system of its own, caste-based discrimination has been transplanted into the country through immigration and manifests in workplaces, educational institutions, housing, and social settings .
Here is a detailed overview of how casteism operates in Canada today.
📊 Prevalence and Key Findings
The most comprehensive data on caste discrimination in Canada comes from a first-of-its-kind survey conducted by the South Asian Dalit Adivasi Network (SADAN) and researchers from four Canadian universities . The survey, which focused on the large South Asian community in Ontario, revealed alarming rates of caste-based discrimination .
Area of LifePercentage of Respondents Reporting ExperiencesKey ObservationsWorkplace & Educational Institutions Over 40% Discrimination included caste-based interview questions, assignment of lower wages for the same work, and biased treatment from faculty . Over 50% said it hindered their career progress .
Social & Community (e.g., religious gatherings) N/A Bias existed in friendships and marital alliances. Respondents reported separate seating or eating areas at religious and cultural events .
Housing N/A Experiences included rental listings specifying acceptable caste backgrounds and denials based on caste identity .
Overall Impact (Caste-Marginalized Respondents) 92% Experienced caste discrimination in Canada. 68.9% reported it has harmed their mental health, and 80% believe caste affects educational and employment opportunities .
Caste discrimination is not always overt. While less direct than in South Asia, "subtle biases persist" in Canada, making it difficult for those affected to feel fully included and impacting their sense of belonging .
🏛️ From Policy Recognition to Practice
Canada's legal framework is currently grappling with how to address and categorize caste discrimination.
Formal Recognition: The Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC) has formally recognized that caste discrimination can fall under the existing ground of "ancestry" in the province's Human Rights Code . This provides a legal avenue for complaints.
Municipal Action: The city of Burnaby, British Columbia, has explicitly voted to include "caste" as a protected category in its human rights policies, following a similar move by Seattle in the US .
Institutional Gaps: Despite this policy recognition, Dalit activists and academics report that enforcement remains weak and uneven . They argue that many institutions, including universities , employers, and unions, fail to explicitly address caste in their equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) or anti-harassment policies.
🎓 Higher Education: A Key Site of Caste Discrimination
Canadian universities have become a significant area for research and activism on this issue. A 2025 academic paper on the "Transnationalization of Caste" highlights that Canadian higher education institutions are spaces where caste hierarchies are reproduced .
Key issues identified in these academic spaces include:
Dominant-Caste Curricula: Academic content and pedagogies are often dominated by "Western and Brahminical epistemologies" that marginalize Dalit students' perspectives and knowledge .
Exclusionary Social Networks: Dominant-caste students leverage their social capital to gain advantages in admissions, housing, and employment, reinforcing exclusionary structures against Dalit peers .
🗣️ The Indian Diaspora and Activism
The caste hierarchy has been transplanted to Canada primarily by immigrants from South Asia . A recurrent theme in oral history projects is the issue of "visibility." Many Dalit Canadians feel pressured to mask or hide their caste identity to avoid stigma, but activists argue that "you can't have resistance without having visibility" .
In response to this discrimination, a vibrant anti-caste movement has emerged in Canada, led by organizations such as:
These groups work to raise awareness, advocate for policy changes, and provide support for those facing caste-based discrimination, drawing inspiration from the legacy of India's B.R. Ambedkar .
Casteism in Australia
Casteism is a documented and growing problem in Australia, primarily affecting the South Asian diaspora. While Australia has no historical caste system of its own, caste-based discrimination has been transplanted through immigration and is now found in workplaces, educational institutions, and social settings .
The landmark Caste in Australia report, funded by the Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) and led by anti-discrimination lawyer Asang Wankhede, has been instrumental in formally documenting this issue .
📊 Key Findings on Prevalence
The research, which included interviews with 146 participants from caste-oppressed communities, uncovered distressing and pervasive patterns of discrimination . The following table summarizes the key areas where caste discrimination occurs:
Area of LifeReported ExperiencesWorkplace Discrimination in hiring, promotion, and daily work interactions; being "outed" for caste identity by co-workers .
Educational Institutions Students facing bias and exclusion from peers and, in some cases, faculty members in schools and universities .
Social Settings Exclusion from social events; reports of segregated birthday parties for children based on caste .
Community & Economic Socioeconomic boycotts targeting businesses owned by individuals from historically oppressed castes .
Psychological Impact Significant short-term and long-term harm to mental health and overall well-being .
📜 Legal and Policy Recognition
For a long time, caste discrimination operated "quietly" in Australia without formal recognition . This has changed significantly:
AHRC Recognition: The Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) has formally recognized caste-based discrimination as a form of intersectional racial discrimination as part of its National Anti-Racism Framework .
Path to Legal Reform: The framework recommends that the Australian government "investigate options for legal protections against caste discrimination, including potential reform of existing legislation" . This is a key first step toward amending the federal Racial Discrimination Act 1975 to explicitly include caste as a ground for discrimination .
Current Legal Gaps: At present, Australian federal anti-discrimination law does not explicitly list "caste" as a protected attribute. However, the Fair Work Act protects against discrimination based on "social origin" , which some legal experts argue could potentially cover caste-based cases, depending on the specific circumstances.
📈 Broader Context of Discrimination in Australia
While casteism is a specific issue within the South Asian diaspora, it exists within a broader landscape of discrimination in Australia:
In 2024, approximately 17% of people in Australia reported experiencing discrimination based on their skin color, ethnic origin, or religion .
Among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, around 65% experienced everyday discrimination between 2018 and 2021 .
Casteism in UK & USA
Casteism has firmly taken root in both the United Kingdom and the United States, migrating with the South Asian diaspora and manifesting in workplaces, universities, and community settings. While neither country has a historical caste system, both are now grappling with how to address this imported form of discrimination through legal frameworks and institutional policies.
🇺🇸 Casteism in the United States
The United States has seen a surge in legal and political action on caste discrimination in recent years. With a South Asian diaspora exceeding 5 million people, caste hierarchies have been transplanted into American soil.
📜 Landmark Lawsuits
Two major lawsuits have exposed caste discrimination in the US:
Cisco Systems (2020): A Dalit engineer sued the tech giant, alleging that two upper-caste managers discriminated against him and that Cisco failed to take appropriate action. His co-workers had allegedly "outed" him, arguing he only secured admission to the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) through affirmative action policies.
BAPS Temple (2021): A federal lawsuit accused the Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS), a Hindu organization, of exploiting over 200 Dalit workers to build a temple in New Jersey, paying them as little as $1.20 an hour—far below the federal minimum wage of $7.25 at the time.
📊 Data on Prevalence
A landmark survey by the Dalit civil rights organization Equality Labs found alarming rates of caste discrimination in the US:
Educational discrimination: One in three Dalit students reported facing discrimination during their education.
Fear of being "outed": About one in two Dalits expressed fear of their caste identity being revealed.
🏛️ Legal and Policy Milestones
The US has moved faster than the UK in enacting explicit protections:
Seattle (February 2023): Became the first US city—and the first jurisdiction outside South Asia—to explicitly ban caste discrimination through a city council ordinance.
California (2023): The state passed groundbreaking anti-caste legislation, with Senator Aisha Wahab's bill unanimously passing the Senate Judiciary Committee.
Universities: Several major academic institutions have added caste to their non-discrimination policies, including Columbia University, Harvard University, Brown University, Brandeis University, and the California State University (CSU) system.
🇬🇧 Casteism in the United Kingdom
The UK has a longer history of South Asian migration, and caste discrimination has been documented extensively, particularly in employment, education, and housing.
⚖️ Legal Framework and Key Cases
Unlike the US, the UK has a specific legal history with caste:
Tirkey v Chandok (2015) : This landmark Employment Tribunal case ruled that an Adivasi woman from India, employed as a domestic worker, had been subjected to caste discrimination by her upper-caste Indian employers. Crucially, the tribunal determined that caste discrimination falls within the ambit of the Equality Act 2010 under the protected characteristic of "ethnic origins".
Parliamentary Attention: The question of caste has appeared over 2,200 times in the UK Parliament, reflecting sustained political debate.
📋 Government Reports
The UK government commissioned a study, Caste discrimination and harassment in Great Britain, which documented numerous instances of prejudice in schools and workplaces. The report found evidence that caste discrimination is likely to occur in Britain and suggested that expanding the definition of race to include caste explicitly might provide better protection.
🗣️ Political and Community Dynamics
Anti-caste activists report that the emergence of Hindu supremacist groups in the UK has become a major concern, as these groups argue that caste is a cultural construct that does not need legislative intervention. There is significant opposition from influential sections of the diaspora, including the National Council of Hindu Temples, UK, which questions the existence of caste discrimination and accuses those seeking legal protections of Hinduphobia.
🔍 Key Differences: US vs. UK Approach
AspectUnited StatesUnited KingdomPrimary Legal Basis Explicit caste bans at city (Seattle) and state (California) levels; pending federal recognition Caste interpreted under existing protected grounds ("ethnic origins") in Equality Act 2010 (courts)
Key Legal Victory No federal-level ruling yet; Seattle ordinance (2023) most significant policy win Tirkey v Chandok (2015) – UK tribunal ruled caste covered by Equality Act
University Policies Multiple Ivy League and state universities have explicit caste protections (Harvard, Columbia, CSU) Few explicit policies; debate over是否需要 specific provisions
Government Position No federal law explicitly banning caste; state/local action varies Government has hesitated to amend Equality Act despite recommendations
Community Dynamics Strong anti-caste activism led by organizations like Equality Labs Significant resistance from Hindu nationalist groups opposing legal recognition
📜 Historical Context: Why Caste Travels
The migration of caste is not a new phenomenon. As early as 1916, B.R. Ambedkar presciently warned in his thesis Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development: "If Hindus migrate to other regions on earth, Indian caste would become a world problem". This prediction has proven accurate.
Historically, many early immigrants from India were from lower castes because ancient laws prohibited higher castes from living outside the land of their birth. However, post-1965 immigration to the US brought a wave of affluent, educated, predominantly upper-caste Indians who re-established social hierarchies in their new homeland. This created a dynamic where upper-caste diasporans often deny the existence of caste discrimination while simultaneously benefiting from and perpetuating it.
🌐 The Rise of Anti-Caste Activism
In response to documented discrimination, a vibrant anti-caste movement has emerged in both countries, demanding legal recognition and protection. These activists argue that ending caste discrimination requires explicit acknowledgment—that you cannot have resistance without visibility.
The movement has gained momentum by drawing parallels with anti-racism and civil rights frameworks:
The Black Lives Matter movement has created a broader reckoning with historical injustices, providing a favorable context for anti-caste advocacy.
Dalit activists "scale-up" their fight by mobilizing state legal devices and liberal agendas, while Hindu nationalists work to "push out" the state to secure cultural autonomy.
Dalits in the Caribbean
In the Caribbean, people of South Asian descent whose ancestors were part of the "Dalit" (formerly "untouchable") caste in India exist as a distinct community. However, their status and identity have been transformed over generations, moving from a rigid caste-based hierarchy to a new social order often shaped more by race and class.
🏛️ The Arrival: Caste Labels on the Plantation
When Indian indentured laborers were shipped to the Caribbean (starting in 1838) after the abolition of slavery, British colonial officials recorded their caste identities in shipping logs. These records show the presence of people from lower castes.
For example, on voyages from the port of Madras to British Guiana (now Guyana) between 1845 and 1846, out of 571 people, 60 were officially designated with the anglicized caste category "Pariah" (from paraiyar), a term used for a large group of people who were considered untouchable in South India .
🗺️ Reconfiguration: From Caste to Race
Upon arrival in the Caribbean, the traditional, highly complex Indian caste system (jati) did not survive intact. It was fundamentally reconfigured in the new colonial context .
Loss of Traditional Function: In India, caste determined occupation, social standing, and who you could eat or marry with. On the sugar plantations, all Indian laborers were assigned the same back-breaking work, regardless of their caste origin. This significantly weakened the practical power of the caste hierarchy .
New Hierarchies Emerge: Caste identities were simplified and often bled into the broader racial and class structures of Caribbean society. A new social stratification emerged, with whites at the top, followed by "coloreds" (mixed race), then Afro-Caribbeans, and with Indo-Caribbeans often at the bottom as plantation workers . Within the Indian community itself, identities began to coalesce more around religion (Hindu, Muslim, Christian) and language groups than strict caste sub-divisions .
🔬 The Specific Status of the "Dalit" Descendants
The descendants of "Pariah" laborers are often referred to as the Madrasi community, a term that originally referred to people from the Madras Presidency (modern-day Tamil Nadu and surrounding regions) .
Stigma and Exclusion: Despite the reconfiguration of the caste system, remnants of caste-based discrimination have persisted. The Madrasi community has historically faced social ostracization and religious persecution from the dominant Indo-Caribbean Hindu majority . The term "Dougla" (a person of mixed African and Indian descent) also carried strong negative connotations of caste impurity, though it has been reclaimed by many in modern times .
A Casteless Society in the Making? Interestingly, academic research points to a paradox. While some Brahminical (upper-caste) institutions and deities were re-established, the harsh realities of plantation life and interaction with other races and religions also forced a reworking of social norms . For many, the Caribbean became a place where a "casteless society" could be envisioned.
Key figures like Henry Sidambaram in Guadeloupe, who fought for civic rights for the Tamil (Madrasi) community, exemplify this resistance against caste-based and racial discrimination .
📊 Summary: Caste vs. Race in the Caribbean
The following table helps to visualize how status is determined differently in India versus the Caribbean for descendants of these communities:
FeatureTraditional Indian Caste SystemContemporary Caribbean ContextPrimary Identity Caste (Jati) - A rigid, birth-based hierarchy. Race & Ethnicity - Afro-Caribbean, Indo-Caribbean, Mixed, etc.
Social Stratification Based on notions of ritual purity and pollution. Based on colonial history of power (White/European > Mixed Race > Black/Afro-Caribbean > Indo-Caribbean) .
Status of Dalits Designated as "Scheduled Castes"; face historic social and economic discrimination. Ancestors arrived as "Pariahs" . Their descendants are often grouped as the "Madrasi" community, a minority within the Indo-Caribbean population, sometimes facing social stigma .
Community Evolution Hierarchy maintained through endogamy (marrying within caste). Traditional occupational caste roles vanished. New identities form through religion (Hindu, Muslim), language, and integration with other races (e.g., "Dougla") .
In conclusion, while the specific identity of "Dalit" did not survive the transatlantic journey in its original form, the descendants of those lower-caste laborers did not escape social stratification. Their status was largely absorbed into the broader, and often fluid, racial and class hierarchies that define the post-colonial Caribbean.
Hobo
A "hobo" is a specifically American term for a migratory worker who travels, often by freight train, in search of work . While often grouped with "tramps" and "bums," there is a distinct historical and cultural hierarchy among the three.
🧍♂️ Distinction: Hobo vs. Tramp vs. Bum
The differences between these terms are well-summarized in a 1937 definition by H. L. Mencken, which remains the standard distinction .
TermCore IdentityAttitude Toward WorkTravelHobo Migrant worker Willing to work; actively looks for jobs Travels constantly for work
Paul Edwards, a person who lived this life during the Great Depression, stated in an interview that those on the road resented the term "hobo" because outsiders used it to imply they were "going nowhere" and wanted handouts—when in reality, they were desperate workers following "the least glimmer of hope" for a job .
🏛️ The Golden Age: The Great Depression
The number of hobos skyrocketed during the Great Depression (1930s) , when widespread unemployment forced millions of Americans to take to the roads and rails .
Life was incredibly dangerous. Hobos faced:
Violence from Railroad Police (Bulls): Railway security had a reputation for brutality against trespassers .
Physical Danger: Falling from trains, getting trapped between cars, or freezing to death in cold weather were constant risks .
To survive, they created a unique subculture, including "hobo jungles" (campsites) where they shared food, often cooking a communal stew known as "Mulligan stew" .
📜 Culture and Code
Despite their transient life, hobos developed a sophisticated culture:
Hobo Code: A system of symbols chalked on fences, trees, or houses to warn others about dangers or signal friendly spots (e.g., a symbol for "nice lady will give lunch" or "danger: man with dog") .
Community: Modern research confirms that this identity still survives today, with an annual National Hobo Convention held in Britt, Iowa, where a "Hobo King and Queen" are crowned .
💼 Modern Usage and the "Hobo Bag"
While the traditional hobo lifestyle has declined (partly due to the shift from steam to diesel trains, which made hopping harder), the word persists in modern language .
Notably, the term was borrowed by the fashion industry. A "Hobo bag" is a large, slouchy purse with a crescent shape, named because it resembles the knapsack or bindle (a stick with a sack on the end) that hobos were depicted carrying . However, there is growing criticism of this usage, as critics argue it trivializes the harsh reality of homelessness .
Italy's Untouchable
CasteThe concept of an "untouchable caste" in Italy is not a legally recognized system like the historical sistema de castas in Latin America. Instead, the term "untouchable" has been used in two primary ways in modern Italy: first, as a political metaphor for a powerful, privileged political class, and second, to describe the severe social marginalization faced by the Roma and Sinti communities.
👑 The Political "Caste": An Insulated Ruling Class
The phrase most famously appears in the 2007 best-selling book La Casta: Come i politici italiani sono diventati intoccabili ("The Caste: How Italian Politicians Became Untouchable") by journalists Sergio Rizzo and Gian Antonio Stella .
This is a metaphorical "caste," not a religious or racial one. The book's authors argue that Italian politicians had formed an insulated and self-serving ruling class—which they call "the Caste"—that operated with impunity, enriching themselves at public expense . They described politicians as "an oligarchy of insatiable Brahmins," a direct use of Indian caste terminology to criticize a privileged elite who no longer had to worry about accountability .
Examples of the perceived excesses highlighted in the book included:
Extravagance: The budget for the Italian presidential palace was alleged to be four times that of Buckingham Palace .
Cronyism: The book detailed how political cronies at all levels abused public office for personal gain, from mayors of small towns to national ministers .
This political critique resonated deeply with the Italian public. The book sold hundreds of thousands of copies and tapped into a widespread disillusionment with a political class seen as detached from the struggles of ordinary citizens .
🏕️ The Roma and Sinti: Italy's Socially "Untouchable" Minority
Beyond the political metaphor, the term "untouchable" has a more direct social parallel when applied to the Roma and Sinti communities .
Historical Roots: The Greek term "Athinganoi" —which literally means "untouchables"—was historically used to describe populations from Asia Minor who later came to be associated with "gypsies" . This linguistic link directly connects the concept of untouchability to the ancestors of modern-day Roma.
Persistent Marginalization: In contemporary Italy, Roma and Sinti people face severe social exclusion, discrimination, and geographic segregation. They are often marginalized "out of sight, out of mind" in separate camps, reflecting a social status that functionally equates to untouchability . Their plight, however, is largely absent from mainstream political debates, leaving them in a state of systemic neglect .
While the political "caste" represents the powerful elite, the Roma and Sinti represent the powerless opposite end of the spectrum—a group stigmatized and excluded in ways that echo the condition of "untouchables" in other societies.
📜 Other Forms of Social Division: Historical Hierarchy and Modern Inequality
Italy's society has been shaped by other deep divisions that, while not a formal caste system, create rigid social strata.
Historical "Superiors" and "Inferiors": Despite being one of the first European countries to formally abolish serfdom (in the 12th century), Italian society was historically divided into two vast classes: the "superiors" who had rights and the "inferiors" who did not . This distinction was maintained not necessarily to preserve specific privileges but to ensure the existence of an inferior class, with access to education being the key marker .
Inherited Poverty: Modern economic data reveals a form of "inherited" disadvantage. Italy has a high rate of "inherited poverty," where a person's economic fate is strongly determined by that of their parents . One Italian statistics agency (ISTAT) report noted that nearly one-third of adults facing poverty risk inherited their condition from their parents, creating a cycle of disadvantage that functions almost like a hereditary social status . 1.4 million Italian minors currently live in absolute poverty, cementing this intergenerational inequality .
In summary, Italy has no legal or religious "untouchable caste." Instead, the term is used powerfully in two contexts: as a critical metaphor for a self-serving political elite, and as a descriptor for the extreme, persistent social marginalization of the Roma and Sinti people. This is layered over a society grappling with deep-seated historical class divisions and a modern crisis of inherited economic inequality.d less untouchable.
Nomad
A nomad is a member of a community that moves from place to place to live and work, rather than settling permanently in one location. Unlike "hobos," "tramps," or "vagrants"—terms often associated with displacement, poverty, or being outside of social structures—nomads travel as part of an organized, traditional, and often collective way of life.
Here is a detailed breakdown of who nomads are, their types, and their modern status.
🌍 Who Are Nomads? (Definition and Key Traits)
At its core, nomadism is a form of livelihood and land use.
Mobility: Movement is cyclical and purposeful, following resources like water, pasture for animals, or trade routes .
Societal Structure: Nomads often live in tribal or kinship-based groups (families, clans) with their own social norms and governance .
Resource Use: They rely on the natural productivity of extensive areas rather than intensively farming a single plot of land .
Distinction from Other Groups: Unlike refugees (who are forced to flee) or modern tourists (who travel for leisure), nomads move for economic and cultural survival.
🐐 Types of Nomadism
Nomadic lifestyles are diverse, generally falling into three main categories based on their primary economic activity.
TypePrimary ActivityExample GroupsKey CharacteristicsPastoral Nomads Herding livestock (camels, cattle, goats, yaks, reindeer) Bedouin (Middle East), Maasai (East Africa), Mongols (Central Asia), Sami (Northern Europe) Most common type . Move seasonally to find fresh pasture and water. Often trade animal products for grains/goods from settled peoples .
Hunter-Gatherer Nomads Hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants Hadza (Tanzania), San (Bushmen) of the Kalahari Historically the only form of human society. Today, very few groups remain due to encroachment by agriculture and modern states .
Peripatetic (Service) Nomads Providing a specialized trade or service to settled communities Romani (Europe), Dom (Middle East), Qalandar (South Asia), Banjara (India) Travel in groups, offering skills like metalworking, music, fortune-telling, or animal training. Often face significant social stigma and discrimination .
🏛️ Nomads in History and the Modern World
For most of human history, nomadism was a dominant form of social organization. Pastoral nomads controlled vast empires (e.g., the Mongols) and were a constant force interacting with settled agricultural civilizations through trade, conflict, and exchange .
The Sedentary Bias: Despite their historical importance, nomads are often viewed negatively by settled societies. They are sometimes seen as "backward," "wandering," or "lawless" because they exist outside the boundaries of state control .
Modern Threats: Today, nomadic life is under severe threat. Governments often pressure nomads to settle for reasons of state control, taxation, and national identity. Other threats include:
Land Loss: Pastoral lands are taken for agriculture, national parks, or resource extraction (mining, oil).
Climate Change: Unpredictable weather patterns and desertification disrupt traditional herding routes .
Political Borders: Modern borders cut across historical migration routes, preventing access to essential resources .
🇮🇳 A Note on Nomads in India
India has one of the largest and most diverse nomadic populations in the world, but they remain one of the most marginalized groups.
Diverse Categories: These include pastoral nomads (like the Bakarwals and Gujjars of the Himalayas), peripatetic (service) nomads, and denotified and nomadic tribes (DNTs) .
Colonial Legacy: The British colonial government classified many nomadic communities as "Criminal Tribes" under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871—a label that has caused immense and lasting social stigma. These were later called "Denotified Tribes" (DNTs) after independence .
Current Status: Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes remain among India's most economically and educationally disadvantaged communities. While a National Commission has been established to study and uplift them, many still face extreme discrimination and poverty .
Roma Linked To India’s ‘Untouchables’
A growing body of genetic, linguistic, and historical evidence strongly links the European Roma people to the Dalit (formerly "Untouchable") and Scheduled Caste/Tribal communities of northwestern India. Modern research indicates they began their migration from the Indian subcontinent approximately 1,400 to 1,600 years ago.
🧬 The Genetic Evidence
The strongest support comes from genetic studies analyzing the Y chromosome (passed from father to son). These studies reference a South Asian genetic marker, haplogroup H1a1a-M82, found in nearly half of all Roma men, but rare outside of South Asia.
The Closest Match: Scientists compared this marker in over 10,000 global samples and found the least genetic variation and closest match among the "Doma"—the aboriginal scheduled caste and scheduled tribe populations of northwestern India. This region includes the modern-day areas of Punjab and Rajasthan.
Ruling Out Other Theories: This data effectively refutes older theories that the Roma originated in Egypt, which is why they are called "Gypsies". Their South Asian origin is now scientifically confirmed.
🗣️ Linguistic and Cultural Links
The genetic findings are reinforced by strong evidence from language and culture.
Language: The Romani language is part of the Indo-Aryan language family, sharing a common origin with modern languages of northern India like Hindi. The community's name for themselves, "Roma" or "Rom," is directly derived from the Sanskrit word "Ḍoma," which historically referred to a "man of low caste" who made a living by singing and music.
Culture: For centuries, the Roma maintained a distinct nomadic lifestyle centered on work as entertainers, musicians, and craftsmen—trades traditionally associated with certain low-status communities in India.
📜 The Historical Exodus from India
Historical and genetic modeling helps explain the migration from India.
Likely Timeline: The migration is estimated to have occurred in multiple waves. A major exodus is often placed between the 6th and 11th centuries AD.
Possible Causes: Researchers suggest they may have left as mercenaries, received as a reward for fighting in wars in what is now Punjab around 1001-1026 AD, or fled as refugees due to the spread of Islam into the subcontinent.
❗ Important Nuances and Context
While the evidence is substantial, it is important to note that:
Social Reality vs. Genetic Origin: For the Roma people today living in Europe, caste as a social system no longer exists. A British Roma Council representative noted that their community does not live with a caste system, so being linked to the Dalit community is less significant to their identity than to people in India.
Complex Genetic History: After leaving India, the Roma migrated through Central Asia and the Middle East for centuries. During this time, they intermixed with local populations before arriving in Europe around the 13th century, adding layers to their genetic makeup.
"sweepers" and "untouchables" in Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the terms "sweepers" and "untouchables" are inextricably linked. The vast majority of people engaged in sanitation work—including sweeping streets and cleaning sewers—belong to a socially marginalized group known as Dalits (or Harijans), who have historically been considered "untouchable" .
This system is unique because while caste-based discrimination is traditionally associated with Hinduism, it has also been absorbed into the fabric of Bangladeshi Muslim society .
👥 The "Harijan" Community: Who They Are
The sweeping community in Bangladesh is largely comprised of people known as Harijans (a term popularized by Mahatma Gandhi meaning "Children of God") or Dalits ("the broken/scattered") .
Origin Story: Most do not originally hail from Bengal. They are descendants of laborers forcibly or coercively migrated by the British colonial rulers from regions of Northern India (like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) and Southern India (like Andhra Pradesh) during the 19th and early 20th centuries .
Historic Role: They were brought specifically to provide "menial services" and sanitation to keep the colonial cities clean—a legacy that has trapped their descendants in the same line of work for nearly 200 years .
Population: Estimates suggest there are approximately 5.5 million "untouchables" or Dalits living in Bangladesh today, with around 32,000 sweepers residing in Dhaka city alone .
🔄 The Trap of Occupation & Social Stigma
The connection between "sweeper" and "untouchable" is best described as a cycle of entrapment. Because of their ancestry, they are born into a profession considered nongra kaj ("dirty work"), and because they do that work, society treats them as outcasts .
Segregation: They are largely forced to live in isolated "sweepers colonies" (such as Ganaktuli, Dayaganj, and Gabtoli in Dhaka), separate from the mainstream population .
Extreme Poverty and Wages: Their work is essential, but they are paid shockingly little. For example, sanitation workers in some municipalities earn as little as 1,000 Taka (approx. $9 USD) per month, while families often survive on monthly incomes of 3,000–8,000 Taka (£20-£50) .
Untouchability in Practice: This social exclusion manifests as "untouchability." Dalit communities report no social interaction with upper castes, difficulty accessing temples, and in some cases, being forced to use separate utensils or water sources . As one worker told Amnesty International: "People expect me to live in dirt and silence, and whenever I raised my voice, I was not heard" .
⚖️ Legal Gaps and Climate Vulnerability
Despite Bangladesh's constitution promising non-discrimination, there is a major legal loophole for these communities .
No Specific Law: An "Anti-Discrimination Bill" was drafted in 2013 but has never been passed. Without a law explicitly banning caste-based discrimination, these communities have little legal recourse when employers reject them for being "low caste" .
Climate Crisis: The situation is worsening due to the climate crisis. In coastal regions like Khulna and Satkhira, Dalit sanitation workers are disproportionately affected by cyclones and flooding, yet they are excluded from government relief programs. Many lack official land tenure, making them the first to be evicted and the last to receive aid .
Losing Livelihoods: There is a growing crisis within the community. While "mainstream" Bangladeshis once avoided sanitation work, rising poverty means others are taking these jobs, often through bribery, which is pushing the traditional "untouchable" sweepers out of their only means of survival without offering them any other path .
📝 The Push for Change
Despite the hardship, there is resistance. New generations are seeking education and rejecting the hereditary nature of the work . Meanwhile, organizations like Amnesty International and local rights groups are pressuring the Bangladeshi government to finally pass the Anti-Discrimination Act to legally recognize and protect these "invisible" citizens .
Social exclusion
Practices of social exclusion similar to "untouchability" can be found around the world . These groups are not necessarily connected to the Hindu caste system of South Asia, but they face severe discrimination based on notions of hereditary inferiority, ritual impurity, or descent from historically despised occupations .
Below is a summary of some of these communities across different regions:
Group NameRegion(s)Population EstimatePrimary Historical AssociationModern StatusDalits South Asia (India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka) Over 200 million in India alone Hindu caste system; occupations considered ritually "polluting" (e.g., manual scavenging, leather work) Outlawed in India, Nepal, and Pakistan; continues in practice despite legal protections and affirmative action programs
Burakumin Japan 1–3 million Feudal occupations linked to death & "defilement" (e.g., butchery, execution, tanning) Legal abolition in 1871; severe social discrimination and de facto residential segregation persist
Al-Akhdam Yemen 500,000–3.5 million Myth of descent from soldiers of an Abyssinian ruler; socially designated as "marginalized" Extreme poverty, residential segregation, discrimination in employment and education; often denied humanitarian aid
Cagots Western France & Northern Spain Historically present; now largely assimilated Theories include descent from medieval carpenters, heretics (Cathars), or lepers Discrimination faded mainly in 19th/20th centuries; largely assimilated into mainstream society
Osu Nigeria (Igbo land) Unknown Dedicated to deities; considered the property of shrines and ritually "separated" Social ostracism, restrictions on intermarriage and holding traditional titles
🌏 A Closer Look at Two Major Cases
🇮🇳 Dalits in India
Often considered the "archetypal" untouchables, Dalits have faced thousands of years of caste-based discrimination. Occupations like handling human waste or dead animals have been seen as "polluting," leading to their complete exclusion from social and religious life . While the Indian constitution outlawed untouchability in 1950, the practice continues in many areas. Dalits may still face restrictions on accessing public water, entering temples, marrying outside their caste, or even walking through upper-caste neighborhoods, and they remain vulnerable to caste-based violence .
🇯🇵 Burakumin in Japan
The Burakumin are not an ethnic minority but are descended from feudal-era outcastes called eta (meaning "an abundance of defilement") and hinin ("non-humans"). Their stigma is tied to Buddhist and Shinto taboos against occupations that involve death, such as butchering animals and tanning leather . Officially "liberated" in 1871, descendants of these communities continue to face severe discrimination in marriage and employment to this day. Many still reside in segregated neighborhoods, and companies often request family registry information to screen out Burakumin applicants .
🌍 Other Examples Around the World
The core feature of untouchability—a hereditary stigma that cannot be escaped and leads to extreme social exclusion—can be seen in several other distinct communities:
The Al-Akhdam in Yemen: This Arabic-speaking minority faces a unique form of hereditary marginalization. According to local myth, they are descended from soldiers who attempted to destroy the Kaaba, and this story is used to justify their status as "the marginalized" (al-muhammashīn) . They live in isolated, makeshift slums, facing job and housing discrimination and often being denied humanitarian aid .
The Osu in Nigeria: Among the Igbo people, the Osu are a sub-caste traditionally dedicated to serving the gods, making them "outcasts" from the rest of society. Historically, they lived separately and were barred from intermarrying with "free-born" (Nwadiala) Igbo. Although this system is less visible today, the stigma persists, and many still face social ostracism .
The Cagots of Europe: France and Spain were home to the Cagots, a persecuted minority that faced hatred for over 1,000 years. They were forced to live in separate quarters, enter churches through a special low door, and wear a distinctive badge (often a goose's foot) . Unlike many other groups, the Cagots were not an ethnic, religious, or linguistic minority, making their persecution one of history's most enduring mysteries. Most of the discrimination faded by the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Sistema de castas (or "caste system")
The sistema de castas (or "caste system") was a complex, race-based social hierarchy imposed by Spanish colonial authorities in Latin America. Designed to consolidate power and control labor, it created a rigid legal structure where a person's rights, occupation, and social standing were determined by their birth and racial ancestry .
The following table outlines the primary categories within this colonial pyramid:
Caste GroupLineage/A ancestryRights & Social StatusPeninsulares Spaniards born in Spain Highest rank. Held top colonial offices, military positions, and Church leadership .
Creoles (Criollos) Spaniards born in the Americas Second highest rank. Owned land and mines but were excluded from top state positions .
Mestizos Spanish & Indigenous Mixed-race status. Occupied skilled artisan and lower administrative roles; more restricted rights .
Mulattoes (Mulatos) Spanish & Black African Legally restricted. Often worked as skilled labor or overseers; faced heavy social discrimination .
Indigenous Peoples (Indios) Indigenous (Native) Legally protected "republic," but forced to pay tribute and perform forced labor (e.g., mita) .
Black Africans (Negros) Black African At the base. Largely enslaved (except a few free individuals), with nearly no legal rights .
Zambos Indigenous & Black African The lowest mixed category. Often faced extreme marginalization and legal restrictions .
Origins and Influences
The sistema de castas was not a pre-existing system inherited from Indigenous or African cultures but was a deliberate colonial invention . While there were similar social classifications in both the Iberian kingdoms (distinguishing "Old Christians" from converts) and Pre-Columbian societies, the rigid racial hierarchy of the Americas was a new creation. It was built upon the Spanish concept of ** limpieza de sangre ** ("purity of blood"), which was historically used to discriminate against people of Jewish or Muslim ancestry .
This ideology served to justify the economic exploitation and political subjugation of the vast majority of the colonial population by a small white elite .
Classification Beyond the Law
The system attempted to apply a rigid classification to a dynamic reality of extensive interracial mixing. Colonial authorities devised a bewildering array of terms to categorize every possible racial combination, aiming to create a stable, legally defined hierarchy . Each category ideally determined one's access to wealth, political power, education, and even marriage partners.
However, in practice, social identity was not as fixed as the law pretended. Boundaries between categories could be blurry, and individuals could sometimes "pass" into a higher-status group, particularly with accumulated wealth. This led to the system being described as a "dynamic stratification," where race was a focus for social bargaining rather than a purely fixed biological state .
Comparison: Latin American Castas vs. Anglo-American Race
The sistema de castas is often contrasted with racial systems in Anglo-American colonies (like the future United States). The latter typically created a rigid binary system (white vs. black/other), often governed by the "one-drop rule" (any African ancestry made one "non-white"). In contrast, the Latin American system was a spectrum of categories. While still brutal and hierarchical, it was "fluid" in its definitions and operated on a "continuum of colors," where social mobility was theoretically possible, and "whiteness" could be acquired over generations through "whitening" (blanqueamiento) . The Latin American system was "porous" and ambiguous, in contrast to the "polar" and rigid system of the Anglophone world .
Tanka people (China)
Based on the available information, the status of the Tanka people in China has improved significantly from their historical position as an ostracized "outcast" group. While they are not officially recognized as one of China's 56 ethnic minorities, they are now officially classified as Han Chinese. Government resettlement programs have successfully moved most of the population from boats to houses on land.
Below is a table summarizing the key aspects of their historical and modern status.
AspectHistorical Status (Pre-1949)Current Status (Modern China)Social Standing Considered outcasts, "pariahs," or "sea gypsies" . Discriminatory policies eliminated after 1949; social standing significantly improved .
Official Classification Treated as a separate, inferior group, sometimes recorded as non-Han "aboriginals" . Classified as Han Chinese, not one of the 56 recognized ethnic minorities .
Lifestyle Forced to live on boats (junks/sampans); prohibited or severely restricted from settling on land . Majority relocated to government-built housing on land; some older generations still live on boats .
Legal Rights Barred from land ownership, education, civil service exams, and intermarriage with other Chinese . Full legal rights as Chinese citizens, including access to education, employment, and housing .
🏛️ Historical Background
The Tanka people are an indigenous group from Southern China whose origins can be traced back to the ancient Baiyue peoples . For centuries, they lived a marginalized existence on the water, primarily fishing for a living and being viewed as unclean or inferior by the land-dwelling population . Genetic studies suggest that the Fujian Tanka predominantly originate from ancient indigenous Daic populations and have been a distinct group for over a thousand years .
📈 Modern Uplift Through Government Programs
The most dramatic change for the Tanka people began after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, which eliminated all discriminatory policies. A major step forward was the government program to resettle the boat-dwelling population on land.
Between 1997 and 2013, a systematic relocation program in Fujian Province helped all 18,500 Tanka boat dwellers move into houses onshore . They were arranged in 29 settlements that eventually evolved into villages. Each person received financial support of up to 3,000 yuan to aid in the transition .
Today, the Tanka are integrated into mainstream Chinese society. While some of their unique cultural traditions, such as "Tanka ditties" (salt-water songs) and wedding ceremonies on the water, are preserved and protected as cultural heritage, their younger generations now enjoy access to modern education and employment opportunities on land .
Untouchability in Pakistan
Untouchability and caste-based discrimination are a harsh reality in Pakistan, primarily affecting religious minorities—especially Dalit Christians and Hindus—as well as anyone engaged in traditional "menial" work .
This system is distinct from India's because it is largely denied at the state level and intersects significantly with religious identity, yet its impact on millions of people is profoundly damaging .
👥 Who Are the "Untouchables" of Pakistan?
The groups facing this discrimination are defined by both their caste and religion:
Scheduled Castes (Dalits): Legally recognized as "Scheduled Castes" under a 1957 ordinance, these are primarily Hindus (e.g., Bheel, Kolhi, Meghwar) and Christians . Numbering close to 1 million officially, the vast majority live in the Sindh province .
Religious Minorities: Because caste is often tied to religion, Christians and Hindus are frequently themselves labeled as "low caste" and subjected to the same discrimination .
Occupational Groups: The discrimination is often tied to hereditary occupations. Primarily Christian and Dalit communities are funneled into stigmatized work like sanitation (sweeping, cleaning sewers), manual scavenging, and leatherwork .
The table below summarizes the key aspects of how this system operates:
Aspect of LifeHow Untouchability ManifestsOccupation Institutionalized job segregation: People from these communities are systematically recruited only for "unclean" jobs like sanitation. An Amnesty report found that if a Christian applied for an electrician's job, recruiters would only offer them a sanitation post .
Social & Public Life Everyday humiliation and segregation: They are called derogatory names like Chuhra (sweeper) and Esai. In public and at social events, they face segregation, including being forced to eat and drink from separate utensils .
Legal & Political Lack of legal protection: Pakistan's constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, religion, or caste, but there is no specific law against caste discrimination . The government also denies the problem's existence by framing it as religious, not caste-based .
Economic Bonded labor and poverty: Trapped in the lowest-paying, most insecure jobs, many are forced into debt bondage. Widespread wage theft is common, and 79% of surveyed sanitation workers reported never being paid for overtime .
Safety & Security Forced conversions and abductions: Dalit Hindu girls and women are particularly vulnerable to being abducted, forcibly converted to Islam, and married off, with little to no legal recourse .
Burial & Dignity Encroachment on burial grounds: Even in death, these communities face discrimination, as their traditional cemeteries are often illegally encroached upon by powerful local interests .
📜 The Government's Contradictory Stance: Legal Silence vs. Rhetorical Equality
Pakistan's approach to caste is marked by a deep contradiction between its laws and its actions. While the constitution promises equality, decades of policy have cemented caste-based exclusion .
No Specific Anti-Caste Law: Activists and international bodies like the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) have strongly criticized Pakistan for failing to enact a law explicitly prohibiting caste discrimination, leaving victims without legal redress .
The "Non-Muslim" Loophole: The government's official position is that caste is a "Hindu problem," not a Pakistani one. This has resulted in a system where special provisions like the "Scheduled Caste" category only apply to non-Muslims, effectively excluding Muslim communities who also suffer from caste hierarchies .
Lack of Data and Enforcement: The government also fails to collect comprehensive data on the socio-economic status of Dalits, which is necessary to understand the scale of the problem and formulate policy solutions .
🌍 International Scrutiny and Calls for Change
Pakistan is under increasing international pressure to address this hidden apartheid, as this discrimination violates several international treaties it has signed .
UN Warnings: In August 2024, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) conducted a review and expressed significant concern over Pakistan's failure to protect Dalits and other minorities .
Key Demands: Organizations like Amnesty International and the International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN) are demanding that Pakistan:
In summary, while the Pakistani state often denies its existence , untouchability remains a daily reality for millions. It traps them in degrading work, excludes them from public life, and robs them of basic human dignity, with religious minorities like Dalit Christians and Hindus bearing the brunt of this systemic discrimination.
Vagrancy - People
"Vagrancy" refers to the condition of being a "vagrant" – a person without a settled home or regular work, often forced to wander from place to place. Historically, this status has been heavily criminalized, often targeting the most vulnerable members of society.
Here is a breakdown of the legal and social understanding of vagrancy:
📜 The Colonial Legal Definition
The modern legal concept of vagrancy originates largely from English law. The Vagrancy Act of 1824 in the United Kingdom became the model for many similar laws across the British Empire. This Act classified "vagrants" into a three-tiered hierarchy of escalating criminality:
Idle and Disorderly Persons: The "lowest" tier, including beggars, prostitutes behaving indecently in public, and peddlers trading without a license.
Rogues and Vagabonds: A more serious classification, including those with a second conviction for being "idle and disorderly," those who collect charity under false pretenses, and tramps who refuse available shelter.
Incorrigible Rogues: The highest tier, typically applied to those with a second conviction for being a "rogue and vagabond." This could lead to imprisonment for up to one year.
🌍 Vagrancy in the Indian Context
In India, the issue of vagrancy is deeply intertwined with colonial history and persistent socio-economic challenges. The British introduced similar laws to control and criminalize the poor, a legacy that post-independence India has struggled to move beyond.
Colonial Legacy: Laws like the Bengal Vagrancy Act (1943) were passed following the devastating Bengal Famine. These acts were often used not just to control "begging" but as a tool to "sanitize" cities by rounding up the massive influx of homeless and impoverished refugees from rural areas. The colonial approach focused on punishing the poor rather than addressing the root causes of their poverty.
Current Legal Framework: India does not have a single, unified national law on vagrancy. Instead, many states follow or have adapted the Bombay Prevention of Begging Act (1959).
This Act broadly defines "begging" not just as asking for alms, but also includes performing in public, selling items, or simply being destitute without visible means of support.
The act provides for the detention of individuals in "beggar homes" or "workhouses," a concept directly borrowed from the colonial era.
The Scale of the Problem: According to the 2011 Census, India is home to over 413,000 "beggars and vagrants" (including 221,673 males and 191,997 females). The true number is likely much larger.
🧑⚖️ Modern Re-evaluation and Human Rights
There is a growing recognition, particularly in India, that criminalizing vagrancy is a violation of fundamental human rights. The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India has been actively pushing for a more humane approach.
Violation of Rights: Critics argue that criminalizing vagrancy violates the Right to Life and Dignity (Article 21) , as it punishes people for poverty rather than a crime. It also disproportionately targets marginalized communities and restricts their Freedom of Movement (Article 19).
Call for Decriminalization: The NHRC and various civil society organizations advocate for decriminalizing begging. They argue that punitive measures and rehabilitation cannot work together effectively. The focus should be on providing social security, housing, and healthcare, not imprisonment.
Rehabilitation Efforts: The Indian government has schemes like SMILE (Support for Marginalized Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise) , which focuses on the rehabilitation of individuals engaged in begging. Suggestions include mapping areas with high concentrations of beggars and issuing them Aadhaar cards to ensure they can access social security benefits."Vagrancy" refers to the condition of being a "vagrant" – a person without a settled home or regular work, often forced to wander from place to place. Historically, this status has been heavily criminalized, often targeting the most vulnerable members of society.
Here is a breakdown of the legal and social understanding of vagrancy:
📜 The Colonial Legal Definition
The modern legal concept of vagrancy originates largely from English law. The Vagrancy Act of 1824 in the United Kingdom became the model for many similar laws across the British Empire. This Act classified "vagrants" into a three-tiered hierarchy of escalating criminality:
Idle and Disorderly Persons: The "lowest" tier, including beggars, prostitutes behaving indecently in public, and peddlers trading without a license.
Rogues and Vagabonds: A more serious classification, including those with a second conviction for being "idle and disorderly," those who collect charity under false pretenses, and tramps who refuse available shelter.
Incorrigible Rogues: The highest tier, typically applied to those with a second conviction for being a "rogue and vagabond." This could lead to imprisonment for up to one year.
🌍 Vagrancy in the Indian Context
In India, the issue of vagrancy is deeply intertwined with colonial history and persistent socio-economic challenges. The British introduced similar laws to control and criminalize the poor, a legacy that post-independence India has struggled to move beyond.
Colonial Legacy: Laws like the Bengal Vagrancy Act (1943) were passed following the devastating Bengal Famine. These acts were often used not just to control "begging" but as a tool to "sanitize" cities by rounding up the massive influx of homeless and impoverished refugees from rural areas. The colonial approach focused on punishing the poor rather than addressing the root causes of their poverty.
Current Legal Framework: India does not have a single, unified national law on vagrancy. Instead, many states follow or have adapted the Bombay Prevention of Begging Act (1959).
This Act broadly defines "begging" not just as asking for alms, but also includes performing in public, selling items, or simply being destitute without visible means of support.
The act provides for the detention of individuals in "beggar homes" or "workhouses," a concept directly borrowed from the colonial era.
The Scale of the Problem: According to the 2011 Census, India is home to over 413,000 "beggars and vagrants" (including 221,673 males and 191,997 females). The true number is likely much larger.
🧑⚖️ Modern Re-evaluation and Human Rights
There is a growing recognition, particularly in India, that criminalizing vagrancy is a violation of fundamental human rights. The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India has been actively pushing for a more humane approach.
Violation of Rights: Critics argue that criminalizing vagrancy violates the Right to Life and Dignity (Article 21) , as it punishes people for poverty rather than a crime. It also disproportionately targets marginalized communities and restricts their Freedom of Movement (Article 19).
Call for Decriminalization: The NHRC and various civil society organizations advocate for decriminalizing begging. They argue that punitive measures and rehabilitation cannot work together effectively. The focus should be on providing social security, housing, and healthcare, not imprisonment.
Rehabilitation Efforts: The Indian government has schemes like SMILE (Support for Marginalized Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise) , which focuses on the rehabilitation of individuals engaged in begging. Suggestions include mapping areas with high concentrations of beggars and issuing them Aadhaar cards to ensure they can access social security benefits.
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